Executive Summary
In recent years, immigration has become a pivotal topic in political discussions and policy development in the Western world. This multifaceted issue presents both challenges and opportunities. While immigration offers the potential for economic growth by addressing labor shortages, unregulated immigration can negatively impact resource allocation and social cohesion. This article offers an overview by presenting statistics from prominent Western countries and regions. Additionally, it delves into the academic and policy debates surrounding integrating immigrant communities into the host society. Despite the practical challenges and policy intricacies, the gravity of fostering social cohesion to mitigate poverty, inequality, hate crimes, and the threats linked to terrorism cannot be overstated. Therefore, this article underscores the importance of proactive policy interventions and a coordinated strategy to tackle these challenges and leverage the opportunities that come with regulated immigration.
Introduction
In recent years, immigration has been at the forefront of political debates and policy discussions in the Western world. The issue of immigration plays a significant role in shaping public opinion and government policies, leading to increasingly complex attitudes and behaviors within various communities. Immigration is a multifaceted issue that presents both challenges and opportunities. On one hand, many industrialized countries rely on immigrant labor to address workforce needs and support economic growth. On the other hand, uncontrolled immigration can strain a country's resources and public services. Finding a balance between these contrasting outcomes is a complex task, one that requires a nuanced and balanced approach. However, with the right policy measures, we can promote community and social cohesion and integration, reassuring the public and fostering hope for the future. Moreover, integrating immigrants into society presents policy dilemmas and practical obstacles as countries strive to build inclusive communities.
Despite the controversies surrounding immigration, it has undeniably become a reality. In Australia, nearly 30% of the population were born outside the country, while 41% of Londoners were born outside the UK. The nature and motivation of immigration, along with its resulting outcomes, call for a critical perspective and a nuanced understanding. Immigration has profound impacts on the host country’s economy and socio-cultural fabric. Leveraging the potential of immigrants to build economic capacity while minimizing the risks of social segregation requires careful policy measures. This article aims to delve into some of the complexities and critically reflect on policy measures to promote social cohesion and integration, which are essential for social stability and economic growth.
Factual details of immigration in the Western world
Based on data from the Office of National Statistics (ONS), 1.2 million individuals immigrated to the UK, while 532,000 people emigrated, resulting in a net migration of 685,000 in 2023. In 2021, 9% of the total UK population (6.0 million) held the nationality of a different country. Since 1994, the UK has consistently experienced positive net immigration, indicating that more people have arrived than have left. Between 1998 and 2020, the annual net immigration figure exceeded 100,000 yearly. The numbers dipped due to Brexit and COVID but rebounded in the last two years.
In 2022, 14% of the UK population were born outside of the country. This percentage is similar to other developed countries such as the USA and the Netherlands. However, it is higher in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand and lower in Italy and Portugal. In 2022-23, the net migration figures in Australia and Canada were 518,000 and 249,746, respectively. The EU member states have also received many new immigrants over the years. Currently, 6% of the EU population (27.3 million) are citizens of non-EU countries, and 42.4 million people living in the EU (9% of the population) were born outside the block. The total net immigration in the EU countries in 2022 was 4.25 million.
US Congress's enactment of more lenient immigration legislation in 1965 led to increased immigration in subsequent years. By 1970, the population of immigrants in the U.S. was less than a quarter of the current number. In 2022, the United States saw a record high of 46.1 million foreign-born residents, constituting nearly 14% of the population.
However, immigration and immigrants are a monolith. People have diverse reasons for migration. A breakdown of migration data can provide a better understanding of different groups of immigrants. Figure 3 shows the distribution of various types of immigration to the EU member states. According to the data, work and family are the main reasons for immigration. However, the EU, like many other countries, hosts a significant number of asylum seekers. A similar trend can be seen in the UK, as work and family dominate the reason for immigration (Figure 4).
A brief overview of the history of immigration
The phenomenon of immigration has been an enduring aspect of human history. Individuals have migrated to new lands for various reasons, including conflicts, environmental challenges, economic opportunities, and the pursuit of a better and safer life. Throughout the last thousand years, significant human migrations have been driven by factors such as colonialism, slavery, and pivotal events like the discovery of the Americas, the potato famine, and conflicts in Europe. In the aftermath of World War II and the end of colonial rule, the movement of millions of people from former colonies to their former colonizers was driven by the need for additional labor to aid in post-war reconstruction. Subsequently, during the 1970s and 1980s, the United States began to attract skilled immigrants from across the globe. The collapse of the Soviet Union, the opening up of China, and India's economic growth have contributed to the global nature of contemporary immigration. As a result, many countries today are both sources and destinations of migrants. Figure 5 compares global net migration, indicating that most OECD countries experience higher levels of net migration.
Impact of immigration on a host country’s economy
It is important to note that immigration is diverse, and its impact yields mixed outcomes. According to the Migration Observatory, the fiscal effects of immigration differ based on the immigrant groups. Factors such as the age of immigrants and the nature of immigration play crucial roles in determining their impact. Younger and skilled workers tend to positively impact society through increased tax contributions, participation in economic activities, and limited use of public finances. The proportional contributions may also vary depending on a country's reliance on immigrant labor. Figure 6 illustrates the estimated distribution of the net contribution by foreign-born individuals in OECD countries.
Impact of immigration on culture and society
Culture is defined as a set of behaviors and customs driven by shared values and beliefs within a group of people. It represents human identity, perspectives, attitudes, and expressions. Culture is a dynamic entity that evolves over time and through interactions with other cultures. For example, English has evolved and has been influenced by languages such as Latin and French. The British lifestyle has also adapted due to technological advancements, globalization, and immigration. The tradition of battered fish in the UK is an example of cultural influence from Jewish migrants. At the same time, the widely celebrated cuisine, Chicken Tikka Masala, originates in the contributions of South Asian immigrants.
On the other hand, society refers to a community that shares a common cultural bond. Society and culture mutually shape each other. The increasing diversity within a society can reciprocally impact the cultural makeup of its inhabitants. Immigration profoundly affects a host country's economy and society's social and cultural fabric.
Immigrants’ acculturation and social cohesion
The preceding discussion highlights the prevalence of a significant immigrant population in most Western societies. These societies often have second or third-generation immigrants, leading to complex socio-cultural dynamics of diverse ethnic and religious groups. The interaction between immigrant and host communities has been extensively explored in various academic disciplines, including sociology, psychology, anthropology, and business and management studies. The process of learning and adopting a new culture is known as acculturation. The literature on acculturation identifies four distinct types of acculturative behaviors that immigrants exhibit: assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization. Assimilation occurs when immigrants fully embrace the host community's culture, while separation involves distancing themselves from the host community's culture. Integration is the state of acculturation when immigrants develop a hybrid cultural identity by adopting some parts of the host culture while retaining their ancestral culture. Finally, marginalization happens when immigrants adopt neither the host culture nor maintain their ancestral culture.
Numerous academic studies indicate that immigrants who demonstrate ‘integration’ can benefit from a sense of belonging while maintaining their cultural identity. While assimilation and separation are believed to be less prevalent in today's society, instances of the latter, albeit in a modified form, can occur within segregated minority ethnic and religious communities. Policy initiatives encourage increased interaction and integration of immigrant communities with the broader society, ultimately fostering social inclusivity and positive social mobility. Differences in policies and the dynamics of inter-community interaction vary across countries. Three common metaphors are often used to illustrate how ethnic and immigrant communities coexist within a host society. The ‘melting pot’ concept depicts the U.S. approach to assimilation, where immigrant communities embrace a common "American" identity. Conversely, countries that actively embrace multiculturalism, such as Canada, are likened to a ‘salad bowl,’ where immigrant communities maintain their own identities while coexisting within a diverse community. Societies characterized by racial or religious segregation are compared to a ‘mosaic’ formation of ethnic relationships, where integration and interaction are minimal.
Policy measures to foster social and community cohesion
While community cohesion lacks a standard definition, it typically revolves around solidarity, trust, and a sense of togetherness among different communities. Research indicates that uncontrolled and sharp increases in diversity within a society may reduce trust and social capital. With immigration leading to increased diversity in many Western nations, it is essential to implement policy measures to foster community and social cohesion. Without such measures, a nation risks falling into poverty, social exclusion, hate crimes, and terrorist activities.
Scholars and policymakers hold varying opinions regarding the most suitable overarching policy to encourage immigrants’ positive contributions to and integration into a host society. One frequently discussed concept is multiculturalism, which refers to the coexistence of different communities while preserving and nurturing their cultural identities. Multiculturalism encompasses both policy and philosophical considerations. From a policy perspective, it serves as a guiding principle for promoting social mobility and representation of ethnic/immigrant communities through the development of cultural knowledge, respect, and interaction. Measures such as affirmative action, celebrating diversity, and preserving minority cultural heritage commonly reflect this approach. On a philosophical level, multiculturalism is embedded in a nation's citizens' ethos and their daily endeavors to foster mutual respect among various cultural and religious groups and identities. A set of metrics, known as the Multicultural Policy Index (MPI), is used to identify and categorize the policy measures of different nations. Based on the Multicultural Policy Index (MPI), Canada and Australia are tied for the top spot in terms of multicultural policies and their implementation. Following closely behind are Sweden, New Zealand, and Belgium. On the other hand, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and Denmark have the lowest rankings in terms of multicultural policies and their execution.
The question of whether culture can adapt and change over time raises the potential for ethnic minorities to actively participate in and contribute to a shared environment where diverse cultures and identities can evolve together. While some academic literature argues that multiculturalism is integral to integration, it's important to note that the concept doesn't entirely emphasize and support cultural interaction.
The concept has faced criticism from various quarters, particularly from right-wing thinkers and politicians, who view it as a failed social experiment. They argue that multiculturalism fosters divisions and segregation within societies and may not align with the values of the host nation, leading to conflicts with the orientation of immigrants. Notable figures such as David Cameron and Angela Merkel have expressed skepticism towards multiculturalism. Interculturalism is often proposed as an alternative perspective, but it shares similarities with multiculturalism. It emphasizes increased dialogue among diverse groups, the development of new blended identities, and the cultivation of a shared sense of unity and togetherness.
Despite the policy debates at hand, it is increasingly crucial to foster trust, cooperation, and mutual respect among communities in Western countries. While the authorities in these nations are focused on managing immigration, it is equally important to prioritize the integration of existing immigrant communities for a more unified society. Open dialogue, transparency, and provision of accurate information is essential for enhancing public trust in migration and integration policies. Host and immigrant communities both have significant roles to assume, and the process and outcomes should not be viewed as a zero-sum game. As discussions on the methods of social cohesion and integration progress, all involved stakeholders must establish shared objectives built upon mutual respect and a firm commitment to developing shared values.
Dr Bidit L. Dey
Associate Professor in Marketing
Sheffield University Management School (the University of Sheffield), UK
LinkedIn: Bidit Dey | LinkedIn
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Further Read:
Dey, B.L., Nasef, Y.T., Brown, D.M., Samuel, L., Singh, P. and Apostolidis, C., 2023. (Im) migrants’ appropriation of culture: Reciprocal influence of personal and work contexts. Journal of World Business, 58(2), p.101417.
Safdar, S., Mahali, S.C. and Scott, C., 2023. A critical review of multiculturalism and interculturalism as integration frameworks: The case of Canada. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 93, p.101756.